A History of Europe Key Battles

President Ebert dies of illness, prompting a presidential election, which is won by the former WW1 military commander Paul von Hindenburg. International negotiations continue, culminating in the Treaty of Locarno, in which France, Germany and Belgium agreed never to attack each other again. Germany joins the League of Nations, and Hitler re-asserts his authority over the National Socialist Party. Picture: President Paul von Hindenberg www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Post World War One Germany Struggles to pay the reparations demanded in the Treaty of Versailles. Picture: President Ebert asked Gustav Stresemann, leader of the DVP party, who formed a government coalition in 1923 www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The early years of Adolf Hitler as he becomes politically active and joins the Nazi party. Meanwhile the Weimar Republic struggles with harsh post-war conditions and attempted uprisings from both the Left and Right. Photo: German police sent to put down a left-wing rebellion known as the March Action www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

After World War One, political upheaval in Germany leads to the overthrow of the German monarchy and establishment of a new republic based in the town of Weimar. Photo: Proclamation of Weimar Republic, 9 November 1918. www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Mussolini consolidates his control of Italy, using a combination of intimidation, violence and occasional compromise to establish an authoritarian regime. He introduces a number of projects to boost Italy, including strengthing the currency, agricultural refor, after-work clubs and family planning, with mixed results. He also embarked on an expansionist foreign policy. Picture: Mussolini with the fascist youth Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

After World War One Italy suffered social unrest due to economic hardship and nationalism. Benito Mussolini led a new Fascist movement which took power in the March on Rome in October 1922 Picture: Benito Mussolini Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

A delegation from Ireland meet the British and make an agreement for Irish autonomy but makes a compromise to keep under under the British Crown. The Irish break into two sides, one supporting the treaty, one opposing it and demanding full independence and a republic. The ensuing Irish Civil War left a bitter legacy. Picture: Bombing of the Four Courts Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Irish form a shadow government in opposition to the British, with their own courts and tax collections. Meanwhile, Irish volunteer fighters wage guerilla warfare against the British police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary. Picture: West Connemara Flying Column Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In January 1919 a group of recently elected Sinn Fien MPs gathered in Dublin. There they proclaimed the establishment of an Irish Republic and adopted a ‘Declaration of Independence’, which asserted Ireland’s right to be a sovereign nation. I describe here the background to the Irish people's struggle for independence from the United Kingdom, including the Easter Rising 1916. Picture: Royal Irish Constabulary Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

An overview of the situation across Europe after World War One. The Treaty of Versailles. The post-war division of territories. The German Revolution and the question of financial reparations. Picture: The heads of the "Big Four" nations at the Paris Peace Conference, 27 May 1919. From left to right: David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson Opening Music: The Charlston. End Music by Nico Vettese www.historyeurope.net https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/a-history-of-europe-key-battles/id788893946 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Conclusion of the Turkish National Struggle 1919-1922. Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk, leads the Turkish Nationalists against the armies of Greece. The Battle of Sakarya River between the Turks and Greeks is a key battle of European history and shapes of the future of their respective countries. Picture: Inferno of Smyrna Music: The Charlston Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Turkish National Struggle 1919-1922 The Ottoman Empire emerges defeated from World War One. The Entente Allies impose harsh conditions in the armistice whereby the Ottomans lose most of their territory including parts of Anatolia. However, Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk, raises an army to oppose the Allies Picture: Mustafa Kemal and Turkish soldiers Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

As background to the Turkish National Struggle, this episode describes the events in the Caucasus Mountains in World War One, - conflict between Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the Germans, and nationalist groups of Georgians, Armenians and Azerbaijanis. Separately I talk about Greece's involvement in World War One. Picture: Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and Enver Pasha, Minister of War for the Ottoman Empire Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Ottoman Empire in World War One - the fights for the Suez Canal, Gaza, Jerusalem and Arabia between the British and Turks Picture: General Allenby enters Jerusalem Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In 1920 the Polish and Soviet Russian armies clashed in a series of battles across a wide area of eastern Europe including Ukraine and Lithuania. The Soviets advanced deep into Poland and reached the gates of Warsaw, with the aims of capturing the city and., more widely, exporting their revolution across Europe. Picture: Polish soldiers in the Battle of Warsaw 1920 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Polish Army make a pre-emptive strike against Soviet Russia. They invade the eastern borderlands, and take large amounts of territory, especially in Ukraine, but they fail to break the Russian army. Meanwhile, the Ukrainians attempt to form an administration in Kyiv Picture: Vladimir Lenin rallying his people to the war Intro Music: The Charlston Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

While Western Europe's borders were settled post World War One, fighting still raged elsewhere on the continent. The most significant was the Polish Soviet War, which raised issues such as the clash of ideologies, the Soviets’ attempt to export their revolution, the future of Europe itself. It was a conflict that spanned a large area, from Lithuania and Ukraine in the east to Warsaw in the west. Picture: Josef Pilsudksi with soldiers Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Bolsheviks face numerous opponents across Russia, and struggle to gain control of all lands of the old Tsarist Empire. The White anti-Bolsheviks make a plan to move on Moscow www.historyeurope.net www.patreon.com/historyeurope Picture: By Hoodinski - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16761719 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Civil War rages across Russia from the north in Murmansk, across the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Far East, as well as in Ukraine and the Caucasus. However, the anti-Bolshevik fail to cooperate effectively Picture: Tsar Nicholas II with this family 1913 (murdered by the Bolsheviks in July 1918) Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The new Bolshevik regime quickly gains control of most of former Russia Empire, but meets stiff resistance in the periphery including Finland, the Caucasus and Ukraine. They sign a peace treaty with Germany at Brest-Litovsk and withdraw from the First World War Picture: Volunteer Army Infantry Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

- Introduction to the new series on the Interwar Years - A recap of Russia's involvement in the First World War - The February 1917 Revolution and Provisional Government - Lenin's Bolsheviks seize power in the October Revolution www.historyeurope.net https://www.patreon.com/c/historyeurope Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Battle of Lake Peipus or 'The Battle on the Ice' was fought on 5th April 1242 between a coalition of western crusaders led by the Teutonic Knights against an army from Novgorod, Russia, led by Alexander Nevsky. The conflict was made famous by a Soviet film of 1938 directed by Sergei Eisenstein. This is the fifth and final part of a set of episodes on the Medieval Baltic and the Northern Crusades Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Alexander Nevksy appointed Prince of Novgorod, a Russian city with its own unique culture and proud history. Lead up to Battle of Lake Peipus 1242 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Livonia in the 12th century was threatened by invasion from all sides; Danes, Swedes, Germans, Poles and Russians. Key events in the episode; 1201 - Founding of Riga (capital of modern day Latvia) by Bishop Albert 1219 - Capture of Tallinn (capital of modern day Estonia) by Denmark in the legendary battle of Lyndaniss 1236 - Defeat of a military order, the Sword Brothers, by a band of Lithuanians at the Battle of Saule Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Teutonic Order was set up in the Holy Land as a German equivalent of other military orders. The first campaigns in Europe were in response to invitations from the King of Hungary and then a Duke of Poland. And so began their conquest of Prussia Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The geography and early history of the Baltic Sea. Also the beginnings of the Northern Crusades against the Baltic pagans. The first major campaign is the Wendish Crusade of 1147 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

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A special episode where I interview Stuart E Eizenstat - an American diplomat and attorney. Mr Einzenstat worked on Jimmy Carter's 1976 presidential campaign. After winning said campaign he became President Jimmy Carter’s Chief Domestic Policy Adviser. Later he went on to become President Bill Clinton's Deputy Secretary of the Treasury. And he served as the United States Ambassador to the European Union from 1993 to 1996 Mr Eizenstat has also devoted much effort to various aspects of Holocaust Restitution, successfully negotiating major agreements with the Swiss, Germans, Austrian and French, and other European countries. He has recently written a book called the Art of Diplomacy in which he recounts how American negotiators reached historic agreements that changed the world. https://www.amazon.co.uk/Art-International-Diplomacy-Stuart-Eizenstat/dp/1538167999 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Paris Peace consisted of a group of distinct treaties, but the main concern of the delegates was the settlement with Germany, embodied in the Treaty of Versailles signed in June 1919. Germany’s eastern frontiers presented far greater problems. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Edward Elgar, Enigma variations, Variation IX (Adagio) Nimrod Picture - Treaty of Versailles, Big Four Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In Spring 1918 a massive German offensive made significant territorial gains, but ultimately not the intended breakthrough, and the Allied forces stood firm. Exhausted and demoralised at the scale of casualties, the Germans were pushed back in a major counter-attack in the late Summer and Autumn. And on 26 September, the Allies launched a general offensive along the entire Western Front. Meanwhile, the Habsburg empire was fast falling apart as various nationalities declared independence. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Alexander Scriabin, Etude in C sharp minor. Courtesy of musopen.org Picture - US 64th regiment celebrate the Armistice Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

After the Russian withdrawal from the frontlines following the October revolution, the treaty of Brest-Litovsk is negotiated between Germany and Russia. The Germans sought to conclude war on the Eastern Front as quickly as possible, while at the same time trying to establish an informal empire in east-central Europe, one composed of newly independent nation states on Russia’s western periphery. However, back on the German home front, after four harsh winters and widespread hunger, political unity was fraying, and riots and strikes occurred across the country. Everything now depended on the success or failure of a German Spring Offensive on the western front. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Picture - German Spring Offensive - British Lewis gun team at the Battle of Hazebrouck 1918 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

While the nations of Europe fought each other to a bitter stalemate, the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, urged both sides to make peace. However, no agreement is made and the United States joined the war on the side of the Entente allies. In the meantime, the Germans ordered a general withdrawal at the western front, abandoning the battlefields of the Somme in order to establish a shorter, straighter and more well-fortified line, the so-called ‘Hindenburg Line’. The eastern front is more volatile, seeing the collapse of the Russian army, a major defeat for the Italians at Caporetto and the fall of Jerusalem to the British www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Vaughan Williams (Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis), courtesy of musopen.org Picture - Allenby enters Jerusalem 1917 Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

As the year 1917 dawned, Europe had been at war for two and a half years, and pressures on the home fronts were becoming intolerable. Every participant nation came under huge strain. In Russia the Tsarist regime falls in March, but the interim government is unstable and itself falls in the famous October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, who promises to withdraw Russia from the war. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederich Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Picture - Vladimir Lenin, 1 May 1920 by Isaak_Brodsky Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Europe entered the year 1916 exhausted by one and a half years of conflict of a scale hitherto unimaginable, with profound effects on citizens at home, as well as those on the front line. The most intensive battles on the western front in 1916 are at Verdun and the Somme, with extraordinary numbers of casualties. Meanwhile, on the eastern front the Russians launch a major attack, the Brusilov offensive. Romania declared war on Austro-Hungary on 27 August 1916 and promptly invaded Transylvannia. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Erik Satie (Gymnopédie no. 1), Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (Russian Easter Festival Overture, Op. 36) Picture - Verdun - Gervais-Courtellemont_french_anti-aircraft_guns Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

For the Germans, 1915 was a year that should not have been. Their whole strategy had been based on a quick war, but they now found themselves embroiled in a two-front war – on the eastern front against Russia, and on the western front against France fully mobilised and also Britain. Throughout 1915, in a succession of attacks of increasing intensity, the various armies learned the techniques of the new kind of war at very heavy cost. In February 1915, Germany launched the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes with an attack on the Russians in East Prussia. Meanwhile, the Austrians attempted to push deep back into Galicia, with huge numbers of casualties on all sides. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederich Chopin, Mazurka in C sharp minor, Op. 6 no. 2 Picture - Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911_LOC_War_of_the_Nations Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The first months of fighting in the First World War had seen no major breakthrough from any side. The Germans had captured about ten percent of France, and reached within sixty miles of Paris, but then reached a stalemate as both sides fortified their positions with great long lines of trenches running from Belgium to the Swiss border. Both sides attempt to bring other countries into the war to help break the stalemate and to tip the balance in their favour. The Italians, though deeply divided, decide in the end to join the side of Britain, France and Russia. And an allied attack against the Ottomans fails at Gallipoli. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Freredich Chopin, Mazurka in C Sharp Minor Picture - Sinking of the Lusitania Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Russians strike hard against their most powerful enemy, Germany. Austro-Hungary help their German ally although their military forces are under-resourced, in large part because through the years the Hungarian parliament had restricted military finding by using it as a bargaining chip for political concessions. While the Austrians attack Serbia, the Germans achieve a significant victory against Russia at the Battle of Tannenberg. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Alexander Scriabin - Etude in C Sharp Minor Picture - Tannenberg Bundesarchiv, East Prussian German Infantry Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The first main clash of the First World War was on the borders of France and Germany and in Belgium. The Belgians put up more resistance than the Germans expect. However, the Battle of the Frontiers, on the Franco-German border, from 7 August to 6 September 1914 was a disaster for the French army, who suffered very heavy casualties. Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force were making their way to the front. The war was set on a grim path of attritional fighting, and with both sides able to draw on millions more men it became virtually impossible to secure an easy victory. As stalemate was reached, the dreadful realisation set in that the combatants would be in this for the long haul. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff (Preludes, Op. 32, Lento, in B minor) Picture - French Bayonet Charge Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne. A month later Austria retaliates by declaring war on Serbia, which in turn brings Russia and the other great powers of Europe into conflict. As Edward Grey memorably expressed it: “The lamps are going out all over Europe, we shall not see them lit again on our lifetime”. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin (Mazurkas in C sharp minor) Picture - Franz Ferdinand, Sarajevo Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Why did the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand trigger the First World War? I also describe how the long struggle between European powers for mastery in central Africa reaches its climax. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Picture - The Nine Sovereigns at Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII Music composed by Frederic Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

An analogy often given to the Balkans leading up to the First World War is a tinderbox, awaiting a flame to ignite it and set off a major conflagration across Europe. In fact, the region suffered a large-scale conflict already two years before the First World War began. Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro had all acquired their independence from the Ottoman Empire over the course of the 19th century. None of them, however, were happy with the territory under their control. Each aspired to lands still under Ottoman rule in Albania, Macedonia and Thrace. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Picture - King George I of Greece and Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria at Thessaloniki Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Italian invasion of Libya 1911. After initial successes, the Italians face strong resistance against the Ottomans and Libyans www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Edward Elgar (The Crown of India, March of the Mogul Emperors) Picture - Italian landing at Tripoli Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Following their countries independence in the mid 19th century, the Italians hoped to establish their status among the Great European Powers by acquiring colonial possessions. Their first main attempt was an unsuccessful invasion of Ethiopia, with a defeat at the Battle of Adowa in 1896 www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin Picture - Battle of Adwa Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In the first years of the 20th century the Austrian Empire faced numerous problems, most of all the rising sense of nationalism among its various peoples. Attempting a more assertive foreign policy, the Austrians set about a plan to formally annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, which since 1878 had been administered by Vienna but still remained under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. However, this decision backfired terribly, triggering a six month diplomatic crisis which almost led to general war www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music: Gustav Mahler's Fourth Symphony Picture - Le Petit Journal, Balkan Crisis 1908 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Ottoman Empire is in disarray and its treasury bankrupt. Under Sultan Abdul Hamid, the Red Sultan, there are violent suppression of uprisings of the Armenians in Anatolia. And in the Balkans the Macedonians and Albanians appeal for independence. A rebellion in Macedonia leads to the The Young Turk revolution and the overthrow of the sultan. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music: Mazurkas by Chopin Picture - Sultan Abdul Hamid Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.